June 2025 - Paper 1: Model Answers & Commentary
Section A
Social influence
01 - 1.4 Minority influence
[2 marks] AO1 = 2
Answer: The term flexibility, in the context of minority influence, refers to a minority’s willingness to make concessions or compromises. This approach makes the minority appear less rigid and dogmatic, increasing the likelihood of persuading the majority.
02 - 1.2c Dispositional explanation for obedience
[4 marks] AO1 = 4
Answer: The authoritarian personality is a dispositional explanation of obedience, meaning it focuses on internal personality traits rather than situational factors. According to Adorno et al. (1950), this personality type develops during early childhood as a result of strict and harsh parenting, where love and approval are conditional on the child's behaviour. Such upbringing creates feelings of resentment and hostility that are displaced onto those perceived as weaker or inferior (scapegoating). People with an authoritarian personality tend to be respectful and obedient towards authority figures, making them more likely to follow orders from authority figures.
Examiner Comment: Students should ensure they link their explanation of the authoritarian personality to obedience by clearly explaining why this personality type leads to higher levels of obedience.
03 -1.2c Dispositional explanation for obedience
[2 marks] AO3 = 2
Answer: One limitation of the authoritarian personality explanation is that it overlooks the importance of situational factors. For example, Milgram found that when the authority figure was in closer proximity to the participant, levels of obedience increased. This suggests that obedience is influenced by situational factors and not just a dispositional personality type.
Examiner Comment: Many students identified methodological limitations but did not link these directly to the question. When outlining issues with the F-scale, students must explain why these are problematic for the theory. For example: a limitation is that the theory relies on self-report data, which may be affected by social desirability bias. Participants might give answers that present them in a better light, meaning some individuals could be wrongly identified as authoritarian, reducing the validity of the explanation for obedience.
04 - 1.1b Explanations for conformity
[16 marks] AO1 = 6, AO2 = 4, AO3 = 6
Answer: There are two main explanations for conformity: normative social influence and informational social influence. Normative social influence occurs when a person conforms to be accepted or liked by a group. It is driven by the desire for social approval and the fear of rejection. This type of conformity is usually associated with compliance, where a person changes their public behaviour but not their private beliefs. The change is therefore temporary and only lasts while the individual is in the presence of the group.
Julie is clearly demonstrating normative social influence. She privately believes that MiniWorld is overpriced and would rather go to Kids’ Cave, but she does not express this opinion because all the other parents seem keen on MiniWorld. Julie changes her public behaviour (agreeing to go to MiniWorld) to fit in with the group, despite privately disagreeing. This shows compliance: a short-term, outward change motivated by the need for social acceptance.
Research by Asch (1951) supports the role of normative social influence in conformity. In his line judgement task, participants often gave incorrect answers that matched those of confederates, even when the correct answer was obvious. When questioned afterwards, many said they conformed to avoid rejection or to fit in with the group. This supports the idea that people conform due to normative pressure, as seen with Julie, who conforms outwardly to avoid standing out or being disliked. It is important to note that Asch’s research lacked population validity as it was conducted exclusively on male participants. This means the findings may not fully apply to Julie, as there could be gender differences in how men and women respond to social pressure.
Informational social influence, on the other hand, occurs when a person conforms because they believe others have greater knowledge or expertise. It is motivated by the desire to be right, particularly in ambiguous situations. Informational social infleucne often leads to internalisation, where both public behaviour and private beliefs change, resulting in a more permanent shift in attitude.
Anthony demonstrates informational social influence. As a new member of the parent-toddler group, he looks to the other parents for guidance about which play area is better. After hearing them describe MiniWorld as superior, he adopts this view and begins taking his twins there, even on days when the group does not meet. This shows internalization: a lasting change in both belief and behaviour because he now genuinely believes MiniWorld is better.
Research by Jenness (1932) supports the idea of informational social influence. In his study, participants first estimated the number of beans in a jar individually, then discussed their estimates in groups. When later asked again individually, most participants changed their answers to be closer to the group’s estimate. This demonstrates that individuals look to others as a source of information when uncertain, leading to internalisation, just as Anthony accepts the group’s view as correct.
Examiner Comment: For this application essay, students should avoid simply quoting from the stem and instead elaborate on the information used, linking it clearly to conformity. Many students referred to methodological issues in studies such as Asch’s but did not relate these to the scenario. In this response, the issue identified (population validity) has been explicitly linked to Julie, demonstrating effective application.
Section B
Memory
05 - Long-term memory (removed from 2025 specification)
[2 marks] AO1 = 2
Answer:
C – Procedural memories are often stored below the level of conscious awareness.
E – Semantic memories include knowing the rules of football.
06 - 2.1b Coding, capacity and duration
[4 marks] AO1 = 4
Answer: Baddeley (1966) investigated how information is coded in memory. He used an independent groups design with participants randomly allocated to one of four conditions: acoustically similar, acoustically dissimilar, semantically similar, or semantically dissimilar word lists. Participants were shown lists of ten one-syllable words and asked to recall them either immediately, testing short-term memory (STM), or after a 20-minute delay, testing long-term memory (LTM).
Baddeley found that recall of acoustically similar words was poorer in short-term memory (STM) than recall of acoustically dissimilar words. He also found that recall of semantically similar words was poorer in long-term memory (LTM) than recall of semantically dissimilar words.
Examiner Comment: This question required students to outline the procedure and/or findings of one study. Students should ensure their responses focus on the specific demands of the question, outlining only key details of the methodology and/or results. They are reminded to present the main findings without drawing conclusions, as this is not creditworthy.
07 - 2.3b Explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure
[2 marks] AO3 = 2
Answer: A student could revise in an environment similar to the exam room, such as sitting at a single-person desk like the one they will use during the exam. This can improve performance because, according to the encoding specificity principle, recall is enhanced when the contextual cues present during learning are also present during retrieval.
08 - 2.3a Explanations for forgetting: interference
[6 marks] AO3 = 6
Answer: One strength of the interference explanation of forgetting comes from research support. For example, Schmidt et al. (2000) found that people who had moved house several times were less able to recall the names of streets near their old home compared with those who had moved less frequently. This suggests that learning new street names had interfered with older memories, providing real-life evidence for retroactive interference.
However, one limitation is that interference may not fully explain forgetting. Research has shown that when participants are given cues, they can often recall the forgotten information, suggesting the memory is still stored but temporarily inaccessible. Therefore, interference may describe a temporary retrieval failure rather than the actual loss of information or forgetting.
Examiner Comment: This question proved challenging for many students. Responses should include evaluation points that are clearly linked to the theory, in this case interference theory.
09 - Statistical tests
[6 marks] AO2 = 6
Answer:
A chi-squared test is suitable when an investigation (1) is a test of difference, (2) uses an independent groups design, and (3) produces nominal data.
In this study, the researcher wanted to see whether there was a difference in the number of “yes” responses between the two conditions (‘the’ and ‘a’). The participants in each condition were different people (“they were randomly allocated to one of two conditions”, meaning the study used an independent groups design. Finally, the responses to the critical question (‘yes’ or ‘no’) were nominal, as they fell into distinct categories that could be counted.
10 - 2.4a Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: leading questions
[4 marks] AO2 = 4
Answer: This finding can be explained by research into leading questions. Loftus and Palmer (1974) found that when participants were asked, “How fast were the cars going when they hit/smashed into each other?” those given the word “smashed” were more likely to report seeing broken glass that was not present. This demonstrates how the wording of a question can distort memory accuracy. Similarly, the question in Condition A (‘Did you see the set of traffic lights?’) is leading, as the word the implies the lights were present, which may have biased participants to answer “yes,” even though no traffic lights appeared in the film.
Examiner Comment: Students should ensure that their answers are clearly linked to both the scenario and the question. In this case, many students wrote detailed descriptions of research (e.g. Loftus and Palmer) but did not relate this knowledge back to the specific question.
Section C
Attachment
11 - Reciprocity (removed from 2025 specification)
[2 marks] AO1 = 2
Answer: Reciprocity refers to a two-way interaction between a caregiver and an infant, where each responds to the other’s signals to maintain communication. The behaviour of one elicits a response from the othersuch as taking turns in vocalising or smiling.
12 - Observational techniques and design
[2 marks] AO3 = 2
Answer: One example of reciprocal behaviour is when the mother smiles and the infant smiles back. Another example is when the infant makes a noise and the mother imitates the sound.
Examiner Comment: For questions on reciprocal behaviour, it is important to describe the actions of both the caregiver and the infant. In this question, some students referred to only one side of the interaction, which limited the marks they could achieve.
13 - Observational techniques and design
[2 marks] AO2 = 2
Answer: The researcher could use event sampling, making a tally each time they observe a reciprocal behaviour from their checklist, such as when the mother smiles and the infant smiles back.
Examiner Comment: Students should ensure they do not confuse sampling methods (e.g. random or opportunity sampling) with sampling behaviours used in observational studies (e.g. event or time sampling).
14 - Correlations; Reliability
[2 marks] AO2 = 2
Answer: A correlation coefficient of +0.26 indicates low reliability, meaning there was little agreement between the two researchers’ observations. This is a weak positive correlation, which falls well below the accepted +0.8 benchmark typically required for reliable observational data.
15 - Reliability
[2 marks] AO3 = 2
Answer: The researchers could improve reliability by making their behavioural categories more clearly operationalised and objective, ensuring that each category has a precise definition that both observers interpret in the same way.
Examiner Comment: Many students found this question difficult. Students should ensure they revise the methods used to improve reliability in observational studies.
16 - 3.1 Animal studies of attachment
[3 marks] AO1 = 3
Answer: Harlow (1958) found that infant monkeys spent more time with the soft cloth mother than the wire mother, even when the wire mother provided food, showing the importance of contact comfort over feeding. When frightened, they clung to the cloth mother for security. Monkeys raised without a real mother were later more aggressive, less sociable, and often neglected their own offspring.
Examiner Comment: Students should ensure their responses focus on the findings, as required by the question, rather than describing the methodology or conclusions, which are not creditworthy.
17 - 3.1 Animal studies of attachment
[3 marks] AO3 = 3
Answer: A limitation of Harlow’s study is that the findings may be difficult to generalise to humans. Although monkeys are more similar to humans than other animals, they are still non-human species, and their behaviour may not fully reflect the complexity of human attachment, which is influenced by emotions, language, and social norms. Therefore, while animal studies are useful for understanding the basic mechanisms of attachment, caution is needed when applying these results to human behaviour.
18 - The role of the father (removed from 2025 specification)
[8 marks] AO1 = 3, AO3 = 6
Answer: Research into the role of the father in attachment suggests that fathers typically play a different but complementary role to mothers. Geiger (1996) found that fathers’ play interactions were more stimulating and physical, whereas mothers’ interactions were more affectionate and nurturing, suggesting that fathers often act as playmates rather than primary caregivers. However, Hrdy (1999) found that fathers were less able than mothers to detect low levels of infant distress, supporting the view that biological factors, such as lower oestrogen levels, may make fathers less naturally sensitive to their infants’ needs. Despite this, Belsky et al. (2009) found that fathers who reported greater marital intimacy were more likely to form secure attachments with their children, showing that the quality of the parental relationship can influence the father–child bond.
One limitation of research into the father’s role is that much of it was conducted during a time when traditional gender roles were dominant. Historically, fathers were viewed primarily as breadwinners, with limited involvement in childcare, meaning that studies from this period may not accurately reflect the roles of modern fathers. This limits the temporal validity of earlier findings, as contemporary fathers often take on more active caregiving roles, suggesting that the father’s contribution to attachment may now be broader and more diverse.
Another issue is that findings on the father’s role are often inconsistent. Some studies suggest that fathers provide sensitive and nurturing care, while others emphasise their role as secondary attachment figures or playmates. These differences may reflect social and cultural variations in how families function, as well as individual differences between fathers. Consequently, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions about the father’s role, as it appears to depend on a range of factors such as biological, relational, and societal influences.
Examiner Comment: This question required students to focus their essays on the findings of research. Some students wrote lengthy descriptions of the methodology, which were not creditworthy.
Section D
Psychopathology
19 - 4.1 Definitions in the field of mental health
[4 marks] AO2 = 4
Answer:
A deviation from ideal mental health
B failure to function adequately
C deviation from social norms
D statistical infrequency/deviation from statistical norms.
20 - 4.4a The cognitive approach to explaining depression
[4 marks] AO1 = 4
Answer: Ellis’ ABC model explains depression as resulting from irrational beliefs triggered by external events. The A stands for the activating event, which can be any situation that triggers a response; the B represents the individual’s irrational beliefs, such as catastrophizing, viewing an event as far worse than it really is, and the C refers to the consequences, such as emotional distress or depression. For example, if a person loses their job (A), they may hold an irrational belief (B) such as “I’ll never find another job and I’ll end up homeless,” leading to negative emotional consequences (C) like hopelessness and depression.
Examiner Comment: Students should ensure that when referring to Ellis’ model, they explicitly explain how it leads to depression.
21 - 4.5b The biological approach to treating OCD
[16 marks] AO1 = 6, AO3 = 10
Answer: The neural explanation of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) focuses on the role of neurotransmitters and abnormal brain circuits. Low levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter involved in regulating mood, are believed to disrupt the transmission of information between neurons, leading to anxiety and obsessive thoughts. In contrast, high levels of dopamine have been associated with compulsive behaviours. Abnormalities in specific brain structures have also been linked to OCD. The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), responsible for processing sensory information and decision-making, shows overactivity in people with OCD, which may cause repetitive checking or cleaning behaviours. The basal ganglia, involved in movement control, also appears to function abnormally, contributing to the repetitive nature of compulsions. Together, these abnormalities suggest that OCD results from faulty communication within brain circuits regulating emotion and behaviour.
However, the neural explanation has been criticised for being reductionist, as it focuses solely on biological mechanisms while ignoring environmental and behavioural factors. The two-process model offers a credible alternative. This explanation suggests that obsessive fears are initially learned through classical conditioning (e.g. associating dirt with anxiety) and maintained through operant conditioning, as compulsive behaviours such as handwashing reduce anxiety through negative reinforcement.
The main biological treatment for OCD is drug therapy, particularly the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) such as Prozac. SSRIs work by blocking the reabsorption of serotonin into the presynaptic neuron, increasing serotonin availability in the synapse and prolonging its action on the postsynaptic neuron. This helps restore normal serotonin transmission and reduces obsessive and compulsive symptoms. In more severe cases, benzodiazepines (BZs), such as Valium, may also be prescribed. BZs enhance the effect of GABA, a neurotransmitter that inhibits neural activity, producing a calming effect and reducing anxiety linked to obsessive thoughts.
There is strong research support for the effectiveness of drug therapy, which also supports the neural explanation. Soomro et al. (2008) reviewed 17 studies comparing SSRIs to placebos and found that SSRIs were significantly more effective in reducing OCD symptoms. The success of these drugs suggests that serotonin levels play a central role in the disorder, providing empirical support for the biological explanation. Drug treatments are also cost-effective and relatively easy to administer, making them practical for widespread use.
However, a limitation of prescribing drug treatments for OCD relates to the potential side effects associated with medications such as SSRIs and BZs. Although evidence supports the effectiveness of SSRIs in treating OCD, some patients may encounter mild side effects like indigestion, while others may experience more severe effects such as hallucinations, erectile problems, or elevated blood pressure. BZs are notorious for their high addictive potential and may also induce increased aggression and long-term memory impairments. These side effects undermine the overall effectiveness of drug treatments, as patients often discontinue medication usage when confronted with adverse effects. That being said, drug therapies, such as SSRIs and BZs, tend to be relatively more affordable when compared to psychological treatments like cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT). This cost-effectiveness makes drug treatments a preferred choice for many doctors and health service providers when addressing OCD and are often used for patients who lack motivation for other forms of treatment.
Examiner Comment: This question allowed students to draw on a wide range of information. As a result, structuring the essay to cover both neural explanations and drug therapy proved challenging. The example essay above divides the response into two clear sections: (1) an outline and evaluation of neural explanations, and (2) an outline and evaluation of drug treatments. This structure ensures that all aspects of the question are addressed effectively.